The Roman Republic
How Rome governed itself for four centuries between the kings and the emperors, and why the system finally broke.
The birth of the Republic
The expulsion of the kings in 509 BC, the meaning of res publica, and Rome's lasting fear of one-man rule.
How the Republic worked
Consuls, the Senate, and the popular assemblies: the offices and councils that shared power and checked one another.
The struggle of the orders
The long conflict between patricians and plebeians that produced the tribunes, written law, and a broader ruling class.
The Punic Wars
Rome's century-long rivalry with Carthage, Hannibal's invasion of Italy, and the rise to Mediterranean dominance.
The Republic in crisis
The Gracchi and land reform, Marius's professional army, and Sulla's march on Rome: politics turning to violence.
The fall of the Republic
The First Triumvirate, Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon, the Ides of March, and Augustus's quiet end to the Republic.